The biblical book of Daniel describes a figure called Darius the Mede, the son of Ahasuerus, who is said to have assumed rule over the Neo-Babylonian Empire after the fall of Babylon to a Medo-Persian force (Dan 5:31). Darius the Mede is a major character in Daniel 6, and the vision of Daniel 9 is said to have occurred during his reign. However, a problem arises when trying to identify Darius the Mede in extrabiblical literature. Darius the Mede is generally considered fictional by modern critical scholarship. (There are a few critical writers who accept the historicity of Darius the Mede, but not many.) The conventional view states that Cyrus the Persian conquered Media ca. 553 BC and deposed the last Median king. Cyrus, as king of Persia, reigned over the entire (Medo-)Persian Empire when Babylon fell in 539 BC. Evangelical Bible scholars have proposed various solutions to harmonize the book of Daniel with this version of history, but there remains a measure of dissatisfaction with these solutions.
When I started writing my dissertation on Darius the Mede, the scholarly discussion was essentially at an impasse. Neither evangelical nor critical scholars had any significant new ideas, and neither side found the other side’s arguments compelling. However, most scholars are unaware that the Greek historian Xenophon describes a Median king, whom he calls Cyaxares II, who corresponds very closely to Daniel’s Darius the Mede. The view that Cyaxares II is Darius the Mede was the standard Jewish and Christian interpretation from Josephus and Jerome until Keil in the 1870s, but it was abandoned after cuneiform inscriptions were discovered that seemed to support Herodotus’ account of the accession of Cyrus, which does not allow for the existence of Xenophon’s Cyaxares II.
The thesis that I argue in my 2014 Ph.D. dissertation and published book (both entitled Darius the Mede: A Reappraisal and available here or here) is that Cyrus shared power with a Median king until about two years after the fall of Babylon. This Median king is called Cyaxares (II) by the Greek historian Xenophon, but is known by his throne name Darius in the book of Daniel. Cyrus did not make a hostile conquest of Media, did not dethrone the last Median king, and did not become the highest regent in the Medo-Persian Empire until after the fall of Babylon. Cyrus was Darius’s co-regent, the hereditary king of the realm of Persia, the crown prince of Media, and the commander of the Medo-Persian army—yet it was still Darius who was officially recognized as the highest power in the realm. Darius died naturally within two years after the fall of Babylon, and as he had no male heir and Cyrus had married his daughter, Cyrus inherited his position upon his death and united the Median and Persian kingdoms in a single throne.
My reconstruction of the accession of Cyrus is based largely on the detailed account given by the Greek historian Xenophon, which agrees remarkably well with the book of Daniel and is supported by a surprising variety of other ancient sources. The account of the accession of Cyrus given by the Greek historian Herodotus, which forms the basis for the reconstruction of these events by modern historians, is a legendary recasting of a propagandistic myth promoted by Cyrus as a means of legitimating his conquest in the minds of an unfavorable Babylonian populace. Cuneiform references to Cyrus (and his son Cambyses) as “king” soon after the fall of Babylon are easily explained through a coregency which lasted until the death of Darius the Mede/Cyaxares II.
Major supporting arguments made in the book include the following:
- The historical reliability of Xenophon’s Cyropaedia was found to be much higher than scholarly consensus currently holds. (One scholar of Xenophon, Steven W. Hirsch, also argues for a much higher view of the historical reliability of the Cyropaedia.) Xenophon was found to be historically credible, and superior to Herodotus, with regard to his accounts of the royal upbringing of Cyrus, the existence of Belshazzar, the existence of Gobryas, and the marriage of Cyrus to Cyaxares’ daughter.
- The Behistun inscription of Darius Hystaspes states that two Medians who launched rebellions against Darius at separate times did so on the basis of (allegedly) false claims to be of the family of Cyaxares. The fact that they claimed a relation to Cyaxares, rather than to Astyages, is evidence that Cyaxares II did indeed exist and was the last Median king.
- The adoption of “Darius” and “Ahasuerus” (= Xerxes) as throne names of the first two Persian kings in the dynasty which followed that of Cyrus is evidence that they were used as throne names by kings of an earlier dynasty. This is indirect evidence that there indeed was a Median king named “Darius,” and another named “Ahasuerus,” as the book of Daniel presents them (Dan 9:1). The use of throne names by Persian kings also gives plausibility to the suggestion that the given name of Darius the Mede was “Cyaxares.”
- There are strong historical evidences that the Medes and the Persians had formed a confederated government, and that Herodotus’ story of Cyrus subjugating the Medes and deposing the last Median king is therefore historically inaccurate. Xenophon and Herodotus agree that the Median king Astyages gave his daughter Mandane in marriage to Cambyses I, who was king of the Persians. In the ancient Near Eastern context, such marriages signified the formation of political alliances, and it seems that Astyages made just such an alliance with Persia with a view toward checking Babylonian hegemony. A passage in the Persae of Aeschylus is noted in chapter 4 which presents Astyages as the founder of the alliance, though without naming him directly. Chapter 3 noted biblical texts which describe the Medes and Persians governing their empire jointly, and also noted abundant archeological evidence which presents the Medes as senior partners and equals with the Persians, rather than their vassals.
- The Harran Stele, which is an inscription of Nabonidus, mentions a certain “king of the land of the Medes” alongside the kings of Egypt and Arabia as Babylon’s leading enemies. This inscription was produced well after the supposed conquest of Media by Cyrus, and therefore seems to indicate that Cyrus did not depose the last Median king.
- The historian Berossus, whose history of Neo-Babylonia is well respected but poorly preserved, refers to the actions of an unspecified “King Darius” shortly after the fall of Babylon. The conventional version of the history of the period does not recognize any such “King Darius.”
- Valerius Harpocration, a professional researcher and lexicographer at the library of Alexandria, affirms in a lexical work that there was a king of the Medo-Persian Empire named “Darius” who reigned sometime before Darius Hystaspes. Once again, the conventional version of the history of the period has no explanation for this “Darius.”
- The Greek tragic dramatist Aeschylus, who wrote before Herodotus, describes two Median kings who preceded Cyrus as rulers of Medo-Persia. Although Aeschylus does not name these two kings, he presents the first as the founder of the dynasty, the second as his son and the king who was on the throne when Babylon fell, and the third, Cyrus, as the natural successor of the second king. The conventional history of the period does not recognize this second Median king.
Scholars tend to be skeptical when presented with new theories, and rightly so. My own dissertation committee at Dallas Theological Seminary was quite skeptical when I proposed the topic. However, after exhaustive research on the primary source texts for the period, the evidence supporting Xenophon’s description of a Median king reigning in parallel with Cyrus, and corresponding to Daniel’s Darius the Mede, was compelling. Although I have yet to receive reviews of my work from critical scholarship, it has been well received so far by evangelical Bible scholars, a number of whom have communicated to me that they are now advocating my position. After publishing my dissertation, I gave a presentation on Darius the Mede at the 2015 annual meeting of the Evangelical Theological Society. I also coauthored an article with Rodger Young on extrabiblical references to Darius the Mede that was published in the July–September 2016 issue of Bibliotheca Sacra. My dissertation was favorably reviewed by Benjamin Noonan in the June 2015 issue of The Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society (p. 386 of the book reviews). Kirk MacGregor follows my line of argumentation on pages 51-54 of his April 2016 JISCA article “A Contemporary Defense of the Authenticity of Daniel.” Paul Tanner has told me that he supports identifying Darius the Mede with Cyaxares II, with extensive argumentation in his forthcoming commentary on Daniel in the Evangelical Exegetical Commentary series; see also his book review on Amazon. References to my work have appeared on various places online, such as Thomas Ross’ page about my book on his apologetics website and the link on Eddie Van Gent’s Daniel Prophecies site. See also James Bejon’s extensive discussion of Darius the Mede in his online commentary on Daniel (Appendix 5, starting on p. 9). Some others have told me that my work has spurred them to start their own research projects on Babylonian contract texts or related topics. Evangelical scholars seem quite happy to have a new solution to the problem of Darius the Mede which fits well with both the book of Daniel and extrabiblical literature. It is my hope that the evidence for identifying Cyaxares II with Darius the Mede will not only reinvigorate scholarly discussion on Darius the Mede, but also will also create a significant change in the way that Cyrus’ rise to power is understood by historians of Neo-Babylonia and Medo-Persia.
Thanks Dr. Anderson, your work on this important issue is much appreciated. You have offered a very valid and sound solution to the problem.
Rev. Douglas Kump
Thanks, Steven, for posting this. For those interested, the whole Cyropaedia is available on line at http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2085/2085-h/2085-h.htm . Of course the speeches put in Cyrus’s mouth were the invention of Xenophon, but this was a known and acceptable literary convention in those times. Josephus practiced it extensively, and ancient readers would have been aware of, and appreciated, this artifice. Here is a summary of some of the reasons that Xenophon’s Cyropaedia should be more trusted in its historical statements than the Histories of Herodotus regarding Cyrus, the Median kingdom, and the capture of Babylon.
1) Herodotus incorrectly related that there was only one king of Babylon when it fell to Cyrus; Xenophon correctly stated that there were two, a father and the son, and the son was the one who was in the city when it was captured (Cyropaedia 4.6.3, 5.2.27, 5.4.12).
2) Xenophon relates that this king/son was slain the night the city was taken; this detail is not found in Herodotus, but is corroborated by Daniel 5:31. It is curious that commentaries on the Book of Daniel do not present the graphic account of the slaying of Belshazzar that is given in the Cyropaedia, 7.5.26-30.
3) Ugbaru/Gubaru (Greek Gobyras) plays an important role in the Cyropaedia, and his existence and importance is verified by the Cyrus Cylinder; Herodotus knows nothing of him.
4) Xenophon states that Cyrus was the son of a Persian king, which is verified by the Cyrus Cylinder. Herodotus said he was not of royal blood, and his account of Cyrus’s early years is a fairy tale.
Rodger C. Young
St. Louis
Dr. Anderson (or Rodger Young) Can you provide an analysis of Daniel 2 and Daniel 9? I would like to see a rigorous interpretation for the prophecies. Thank you.
My own analysis of Daniel 2 and 9 is in my Interpretive Guide to the Minor Prophets, available here (as hard copy) or here (as PDF). I also have a visual analysis of Daniel 11 as a free download here. Otherwise I would recommend standard evangelical commentaries on Daniel such as the one by Leon Wood. Harold Hoehner’s book Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ is also excellent.
The commentator John Gill also came to the same conclusion….. ‘This was Cyaxares the son of Astyages, and uncle of Cyrus; he is called the Median to distinguish him from another Darius the Persian, that came after…’
Thank you for your research and writings on this, Dr. Anderson. I am currently writing an undergraduate paper on the topic of Darius the Mede and have found your dissertation very helpful and informative. Other than the mention of Cyrus giving Cyaxares II a palace and estate in Babylon (Cyropaedia 8.5.17), are there any other references to Cyaxares II having been in Babylon at this time?
Excellent question. I do not know of any sources which state that Cyaxares II ever visited Babylon. The reference you mentioned in the Cyropaedia does not indicate whether Cyaxares II did in fact go to Babylon. His distance from Babylon explains, in part, why cuneiform texts are not dated by his reign.
Thank you Dr. Anderson. I have been preaching through Daniel and found myself unconvinced of the Darius as Ugbaru or Gubaru or Cyrus arguments. I had just finished reading Keil-Delitzsch on the subject and wondered if there was any recent scholarship to confirm, what they seemed absolutely certain about regarding the association of Cyaxares with Darius. It seemed to me to be the most likely of the other theories. Your contribution to this has proven, for me at least, to be very a very helpful recent agreement with their findings.
Thanks for your research. It seems logical to me. I do not believe that Darius the Mede and Darius or Median descent are the same person.
Chapter 9 starts in the first year of Darius. I am possibly the only person that believes this is Darius I in secular history and dates about 522 BC when Daniel was probably well into his 90’s. Others believe it is the same Darius as in Chapters 6 and 11, described as “Darius the Mede” in Chapter 11. But Chapter 9:1 says “of the seed of the Medes”. This statement naturally implies that while this Darius was of Median descent, he was naturalized into some other race. Say Persian.
While work on the Temple had been started, work had been stopped and there was no work being done on it in 522 BC and it would be just 6 years before the rebuilt Temple was finished in 516 BC (70 years after the destruction of Jerusalem and Solomon’s Temple in 586 BC, which began the desolation of Jerusalem spoken of in Daniel 9:2), if it was Darius the Mede it would be about 538 BC and 20 years before the new Temple’s completion (not all that close). Then, Daniel prays a beautiful prayer that God would forgive the Jews and let their Temple be rebuilt because he knew that the 70 years spoken of by the prophet Jeremiah were coming to an end. Then Gabriel came to give Daniel insight with understanding with the seventy weeks of years’ vision.
Thanks for your interest. Daniel 9:2 makes reference to the seventy years prophesied by Jeremiah. The two prophecies of seventy years are found in Jeremiah 25:11-12 and 29:10. In their context in Jeremiah, the seventy years are the years when the nations are serving Babylon, and they end with Babylon’s judgment and Israel’s return to the land. For this reason, I understand Daniel 9 as a description of a prayer and vision of Daniel which occurred a couple of years before Israel’s return from exile in 536 BC, and therefore during the reign of Darius the Mede.
Thanks for your speedy reply. Although it is impossible to be certain of the meaning in Jeremiah, Jeremiah 25:11 says “and this whole land shall be a desolation” and Jeremiah 25:12 says “and the land of the Chaldeans, and will make it perpetual desolations”. To me it would not seem that Judea did not become a desolation until the 586 BC destruction and the whole point of Jeremiah’s 70 years is that it would be in desolation; that seems to be Daniel’s understanding also.
I would like to send you my conclusions on the Mt. of Olives Discourse and the Book of Daniel if you are interested, if so please send me your email address.
God bless your studies in God’s Word
I understand that there are different views as to the terminus a quo and terminus ad quem of Jeremiah’s seventy years, but I believe the best analysis of Jeremiah’s prophecy and its citation in 2 Chronicles 36 and Daniel 9 show that it refers to the period from the first deportation to Babylon and the accession of Nebuchadnezzar in 605 BC until the first year of Cyrus and the return from exile in 536 BC. Zechariah 1:12 and 7:5 do refer to a period of approximately seventy years after the destruction of the temple in 586 BC.
I will send you an email.
I’m not a scholar in any sense, just a curious, interested Christian. After a short Google search, I was a bit disheartened to read that “Darius the Mede” is regarded as a fictional character by most historians. Within a few minutes of finding your article, I was quite encouraged to read your thoughts, theories, and supporting evidence.
Like many people, I suppose, I wish there was a time machine that would help us determine the historicity of the Bible in cases like this, but at least there are fine people out there like yourself who are looking for realistic clues and evidence on these matters.
Thank you for your research and for sharing it with the world.
As keelingdm has already observed, an internet search for Darius, the Mede posts a number of results that disparage the historical accuracy of Daniel and repudiates the existence of a Darius, the Mede. The first result is Wikipedia which many nonChristians and lay Christians read first. I would guess that the average reader will stop his investigation with that source.
It might be beneath a true scholar to contribute to a Wikipedia article, but I think it would a great service if one of the scholars here would make a contribution to not only the article about Darius, the Mede, but also ones regarding other figures such as Belshazzar, whose place as a ruler is disputed by Wikipedia and his feast on the night of Babylon’s fall is portrayed as having all the elements of “historical fiction.” Also, it is confidently asserted that the writing of Daniel was after 164 BC. A scholarly contribution with some of the arguments for the credible possibility of Darius the Mede being Cyaxares II would be an encouraging read for the average believer and a refreshing counter for the skeptical reader.
For myself, the articles did not lead me to doubt the historical accuracy of Daniel (the editors neglected to say that Belshazzar was once considered to be a fictional character of Daniel until he was found in some ancient inscriptions and writings) but it did lead me to dismiss the historical reliability of Xenophon, and hence no longer considered Cyaxares II as an option to be Darius, the Mede, in my search for his identity. All other alternatives were so problematic in my estimation that I figured that there must still be a figure in history that hadn’t yet been discovered that would be Darius, the Mede. Dr. Anderson has clarified for me the historical waters simply by so ably restoring the reliability of Xenophon. If he or another scholar with the ability to contribute these evidences on Wikipedia were to do so, it could help its readers see a more balanced perspective on the reliability of the book of Daniel itself.
I agree. If Dr. Anderson could edit and update the negative bias towards the historicity of Daniel which exists on Wikipedia this would be beneficial for many. Thank you for your fine scholarship.
Yes, it would be great if we could change what is on Wikipedia, since that is where search engines usually send people. I have tried to do this, and so has at least one other scholar I know. Unfortunately, the Wikipedia moderators are virulently anti-Christian, and will not allow affirmations of the historicity of Darius the Mede and the book of Daniel to stand. They act like the only real scholars are the unbelieving critics, and everything that evangelical scholars have written on the book of Daniel should be dismissed. The truth is, they know that if rebuttals are given to the critical view, a lot of people will recognize the problems with it and will believe the Bible.
Cyaxares II – Well done Mr. Anderson! ‘He reveals deep and hidden things to them that fear him’ (Dan 2: 22-23). Just ask Kepler, Newton, Faraday and Maxwell. Also, personally knowing the man who was speaking about Darius in Daniel 11:1 is an advantage. I recognized his voice as the sheep know the voice of the shepherd. “In the first year of Darius the Mede, I, even I, stood up to strengthen and protect him.”
Another clue is the unique physical appearance of this gentleman, which was also noted by the apostle John five centuries later: He was like the ‘son of man’, with eyes of fire, feet like burnished brass, a voice like rushing waters, wearing a gold sash and shining like the sun!! Oddly enough, John and Daniel both reacted the same way. They were so terrified, they fell down as if dead. And this, despite the fact that they were “greatly loved” by this ‘son of man’!
Imagine how an enemy would feel in that situation! Say, for instance, those who try to convince a dying world that the word of God is a bunch of rubbish. Like the metaphysically-challenged ‘scholars’ who insist Daniel 11:1 was fabricated by some anonymous crack-pot trying to hoodwink an unsuspecting public! About what though? How could a vague assertion about an imaginary king fool anyone about anything?
Keep up the good work, Mr. Anderson,
M.J. Baekelandt, R.Ph, CSPI
I just love this; and I’m not a professor of anything but love of the Lord and I love the story of Daniel and this Darius who can’t even sleep because of his concern over Daniel. I just wanted to know if Darius, after getting Daniel out of the lions den really became a follower of Daniel’s God…..he sure should after issuing a final decree about Him; fascinating, and it begs more study and prayer. Our Father God knows……and there must be something out there that will prove it, wouldn’t you think? Thank you for your astute contributions….all of you!
The conversion of Darius the Mede is an interesting question, and we won’t find a definitive answer this side of glory, at least based on the information that is currently available. The decree issued by Darius in Daniel 6:26 commands everyone in the empire to show reverence to Daniel’s God, which in a polytheistic context could mean adding the Jews’ God to the pantheon of other gods to be worshiped. Some commentators think the order to “stand in awe” of Daniel’s God was nothing more than a decree of protection for the Jews, which was needed after the way Daniel was targeted for his Jewish faith. This is a much weaker statement in any case than Nebuchadnezzar’s confession in Daniel 4:37. Darius the Mede clearly believes in the existence and power of Daniel’s God, but it is not clear that he has stopped worshiping the pagan gods. But maybe I will be surprised when I get to heaven and will see Darius the Mede there!
Thank you for getting back to me so soon; I have more to say but it’s getting late so I will get back to you, ok?
Thank you; it would be nice to find out that Darius started following “our” God and not have to wait for the surprise later. My question would be; “What about the book that is mentioned in Esther 10:2 called-THE BOOK OF THE HISTORY OF THE KINGS OF MEDIA AND PERSIA? Wouldn’t you think it would all be recorded in there? And who would King Xerxes be to King Darius? Were they related? Medes and Persians are mentioned quite a bit in the book of Esther. And do you know about the history of King Xerxes and Esther or even what happened to former Queen Vashti? All these ancient people are so fascinating to me. I just read too that King Xerxes had a book too; THE BOOK OF THE HISTORY OF KING XERXES. If you could enlighten me on any of these subjects it would be worth a great study and I would be thankful again….
If you have time you are welcome to check out my Blog as well. http://fromcoaltodiamond.com and let me know what you think, comments are very welcome.
Thanks for your interest! It would be wonderful to have the chronicles of the kings of Media and Persia, as they contained so much valuable and detailed historical information. Unfortunately, it appears that they were only written on papyrus scrolls (cf. Ezra 6:2), which typically rot away over time.
The relationship of Xerxes to Darius the Mede is interesting. When Darius the Mede died, his realm passed to Cyrus the Persian, who had married his daughter. However, the dynasty of Cyrus was overthrown in a coup led by Darius I of Persia in 522 BC, who was a distant relative of Cyrus. We don’t actually know Darius I’s real name, as he chose the throne name “Darius” in order to reinforce his claim to be a legitimate king. He also chose the throne name “Ahasuerus” (= “Xerxes” in Greek) for his son and successor. These names were chosen in order to connect the new dynasty with the last two reigning kings who had preceded Cyrus (cf. Dan 9:1).
As for Esther, it doesn’t seem that she is specifically mentioned in extant extrabiblical sources (specifically, Herodotus). Herodotus calls Xerxes’ queen “Amestris,” but this is probably phonologically equivalent to the Hebrew “Vashti,” the way scholars think the queen’s name was transliterated from Old Persian to Greek and Hebrew. Also, Herodotus’ description of Amestris as a domineering woman fits the biblical description of Vashti, and Herodotus says nothing about any activities of Amestris between the biblical date for the crowning of Esther (the seventh year of Xerxes) and the and the accession of Amestris’ son Artaxerxes I following Xerxes’ death. So Amestris probably = Vashti.
Thank you Dr. Anderson for your work regarding the identity of Darius.
In doing a brief review of his personage, I have found both your coverage and that of Stephen Miller in in his commentary pp 171-177 useful.
If I am correct, I understand that the stronger position is that of Darius being the same personage as Cyrus in Daniel. However, with regard to this position, I have not come across a clear explanation of the similar terms (Darius/Cyrus) in Ezra where it seems clear that that in Ezra they are indeed two different people. For example, in Ez 6:1-3 King Darius searched the records and found the scroll from King Cyrus; appearing to clearly substantiate that the Darius is different than Cyrus at least in Ezra.
the closest evidence to this end seems to be your chart on pg 192 in “Darius the Mede: a Re-appraisal,” where it seems that the solution is to consider the term(s) Darius (and Cyrus?) in Ezra 6:1 may different than the Darius in Daniel because Darius is a “throne name?”
Can you suggest a solution to the identity of the similarly named personages in Ezra when compared to the similary named personages Daniel?
It would be most helpful to have the chart on pg 192 with cross references to Daniel/Ezra to better trace the terms found in both books.
Perhaps there might be a more straightforward solution?
Thank you for your time and effort,
Paul
Hi Paul,
The issue in Ezra 6 is that this is a different Darius than Darius the Mede of the book of Daniel. This is something that all evangelical scholars agree upon, regardless of their view of Darius the Mede. The Darius of Ezra is called “king of Persia” (Ezra 4:4, 24), and he reigns after the reigns of Cyrus and his sons. He is to be identified with Darius I, the son of Hystaspes. There were also two later Persian kings who adopted the throne name “Darius.” I argue that this throne name was also used earlier by the Median king who is called Cyaxares II by Xenophon. Thus, I do not adopt the view that Cyrus used the name Darius, although this view has more points in its favor than the view that Darius the Mede is Gubaru.
Let me know if there are issues that need further clarification.
Steven
Thank you Dr. Anderson for your clarification. Your reply, combined with a more careful read of your dissertation, provided the insight that I needed in changing my view that Darius the Mede was = Cyrus to Darius the Mede was not Cyrus. Originally I found Miller’s articulation regarding the identity of Darius the Mede in Daniel chapter 6 (Daniel, NAC, pp 171-177) convincing. That is until I read further where Daniel in later chapters (9:1 & 10:1) he (Daniel) very clearly distinguished between the two personages. i.e. How could they be the same when in 9:1 and 10:1 there was a distinguishment? After some doubt was cast regarding Miller’s initially persuasive arguments, your work, (and especially your chart in your dissertation); gave me the necessary information to adopt my original persuasion. Thank you.
Dr. Anderson, I just wanted to express my appreciation for your excellent work on this topic and your generosity in making your book available on-line. I particularly appreciate your strongly Biblical approach — the best scholarship in the world will drift if not anchored in Biblical truth. You’ve built excellent scholarship on a dependable foundation.